Callister & Associates
- economic and social research -
Selected 2006 Publications
Latest Papers | 2009 | 2008 | 2007 | 2006 | 2005 | 2004 | 2003 | 2002 | Earlier Papers
[PDF files on this page need
Acrobat reader]
The 'gender education transition': What it might mean for the labour market
Callister, P. and Newell, J. (2006) - paper presented at the 12th Labour, Employment and Work conference, Wellington: Victoria University, November.
Download The 'gender education transition' [488 KB pdf]
Abstract: While overall tertiary education participation has been rising, some groups are lagging. Men, and particularly Maori and Pacific men, are increasingly under represented in many education institutions, especially at higher levels of education. For example, in 1994 in the under 30 age group and when foreign students are excluded there were 13% more women than men enrolled in degree courses. By 2004 this had risen to 36%.
For Maori undertaking degrees, the difference had risen from 21% to 79% in 2004, while for Pacific students the figures have gone from 27% to 52%. The cohorts that are part of this tertiary 'education transition' are now a key part of the population that are forming couples or deciding to live on their own, establishing their careers and deciding whether to have children. Some of the possible implications of this 'education transition' for the labour market are explored.
Women, skills and global mobility: a study of changing patterns of gendered skilled migration into New Zealand
Badkar, J., Callister, P. and Krishnan, V. (2006) - paper presented at the 12th Labour, Employment and Work conference, Wellington: Victoria University, November.
Download Women, skills and global mobility [578 KB pdf]
Abstract: According to the 2003 ILO report, female migrants constitute nearly 51 percent of all migrants in developed countries and about 46 percent of all migrants in developing countries. The global presence of women in migration is also reflected in the increase of women using what have been male dominated migration streams (UN World Survey 2004). Skilled migration flows in New Zealand is important to the Department of Labour's goal of building New Zealand's workforce and attracting (and retaining) top talent in New Zealand to contribute to New Zealand's economic transformation.
This paper looks at trends in the proportion of female and male principal applicants who have migrated to New Zealand through the General Skills and Skilled Migrant Category from 1997/98 to 2005/06. It also examines changes in source countries of these female migrants and examines gender differences in outcomes for skilled migrants. From 1997/98 to 2001/02 the number of female and male migrants entering New Zealand through the skilled categories increased exponentially. Although the proportion of female to male migrants for the skilled categories is low (1:2) throughout the 1997/98 to 2005/06 period, the number of women to men from certain source countries (for example, China, Philippines and Japan) increased or remained high during this period.
Results from the Department of Labour's Settlement Experiences Feedback Survey (survey sent to Skilled / Business stream migrants) shows that while the majority of both female and male principal applicants were employed (94%), there are substantial differences in occupation, industry and incomes between female and male skilled migrants. This paper shows that there is huge diversity of flows by gender and nationality. However, the data show that overall women are critical players in the migration process and are a significant component of skilled migrants in New Zealand. Gender differences need to be considered when developing policies or programmes to attract skilled migrants as well as with their successful settlement.
Ethnic measurement as a policy-making tool
Callister, Paul (2006) chapter in The Politics of Ethnic Boundary-Making, edited by R. Openshaw and E. Rata (eds), UK, Palgrave.
Abstract: Ethnicity (or race) is a very significant variable in social science research and policy making in most, but not all, countries. Yet, ethnicity is not a human characteristic that can be easily identified or measured. In many countries, including New Zealand, there is ongoing debate as to the best way of measuring and reporting race or ethnicity data.
The chapter begins with a brief discussion of why a country might collect information on ethnicity. Some of the historical debates around the collection and reportage of race, then ethnicity, data in New Zealand are subsequently explored. While there are many dimensions to debates about the collection and reportage of ethnicity data, I focus particularly on how those people who belong to more than one ethnic group have been recorded and classified in official surveys.
Finally, there is an examination of some of the social policy implications of historical and current ethnic intermarriage and the growing proportion of New Zealanders who claim multi-ethnic affiliations. This includes a summary of recent New Zealand debates about ethnicity and disadvantage.
Are New Zealanders heading for older age richer, better educated and more likely to be employed?
Callister, Paul (2006) chapter in Implications of Population Ageing: Opportunities and Risks, edited by Jonathan Boston and Judith Davey, Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University, Wellington.
Download 'Are New Zealanders heading for older age richer, better educated and more likely to be employed?' [662 KB pdf]
Abstract: In this study cohorts of those born in New Zealand are drawn from census data and, where possible, tracked from 1976 through to 2001. This technique provides some useful information on whether younger cohorts moving towards older age groups are more likely to be living longer, living together, to be richer, better educated, and more likely to be employed than previous generations.
Overall, there is evidence that many New Zealanders are moving towards older age better educated and more likely to be employed than previous generations. But the data show considerable diversity within the population. While some New Zealanders are moving towards older age groups richer through better incomes or through increasing value of their home ownership, another group appear to have seen their real incomes, and perhaps wealth, eroded primarily through changes in the labour market.
The gendered tertiary education transition: When did it take place and what are some of the possible policy implications?
Callister, P., Newell, J., Perry, M. and Scott, D. (2006) Policy Quarterly, 2(3): 4-13.
Download 'Gendered tertiary education transition' [316 KB pdf]
Abstract: There has been much publicity in recent years about how girls are performing better than boys in many areas of schooling. But in recent times New Zealand has also experienced a gender transition in tertiary educational enrolment and attainment with, for the first time in our history, women participating in tertiary education at a significantly higher rate than men.
This article sets out the magnitude and timing of the changes, highlights some of the reasons being put forward for this shift, and considers how the changes might influence a range of behaviour.
Measuring ethnicity in New Zealand
Callister, P., Didham, R. and Potter, D. M. (2006) Measuring ethnicity in New Zealand: Developing tools for social analysis, Paper presented at the Population Association of America annual meeting.
Link: 'Measuring ethnicity in New Zealand'
Abstract: New Zealand is a microcosm in which to consider global mobility, indigeneity and intermarriage and their effects on culture and identity. Since the early days of New Zealand's colonization there has been a significant level of ethnic intermarriage. One result is that descendents of intermarriage can affiliate with more than one ethnic group.
Against a backdrop of historical debates about the measurement of race, and then ethnicity, the paper explores recent changes in the recording and reporting of ethnicity in New Zealand.
There is particular emphasis on (1) how ethnicity is increasingly seen as a social construct; and (2) how individuals belonging to more than one ethnic group have been recorded and reported in research. The recording of more than one ethnic group presents challenges for ethnic analysis including measuring ethnic intermarriage. Finally, some social policy implications of the growing proportion of New Zealanders who claim multi-ethnic affiliations are explored.
An optimal work-life balance for parents?
Stephens, B and Callister, P. (2006) An optimal work-life balance for parents?: International comparisons and policy levers, paper presented at the Reconciling work and family: Research and policy perspectives conference, Wellington, April 21.
Download 'An optimal work-life balance for parents?' [288 KB pdf]
Abstract: Is there an optimal work-life balance for parents and, if so, how does this have an impact on the development of children? The paper begins with some of the contextual background against which work-life balance discussions in New Zealand need to take place. Clearly, there are many influences that could be important but we have highlighted a few that we think are particularly relevant to discussions at this conference.
Next, we consider some research on the optimal work-life balance for parents in the early years of a child's life. This includes a discussion of ways of supporting optimal fertility and women's employment patterns and then optimal patterns of paid and unpaid work once a child is born. In relation to these research findings we consider the level of support we give New Zealand parents and how this compares internationally. This includes some discussion as over ways to measure 'family friendliness'. In this section, we focus mainly on childcare support and paid parental leave.
Finally, we put forward some suggestions as to how New Zealand policy might change to support an optimal work-life balance for parents of dependent children.
Two Parents, Two Households
Callister, P. and Birks, S. (2006) Two Parents, Two Households: New Zealand Data Collections, Language and Complex Parenting, 'Blue Skies' paper, Families Commission.
Download 'Two Parents, Two Households' [358 KB pdf]
Abstract: This paper explores the issues surrounding data collection and the diversity of family types, with particular emphasis on family connections across households. Most of the official statistics in New Zealand and overseas rely on data collected on an individual or household basis. Hence we commonly see such terms as 'sole parent family' and 'absent parent'. There is commonly an implicit assumption that individuals are part of one household only, and that all their family members live in that same household.
This does not reflect the reality of life for many people, and yet the data shape the perspectives chosen and the analyses undertaken. The associated terminology emphasises some relationships, while ignoring others. Similarly, there are inaccuracies in the perceived availability of, and demands on, resources for the various identified groups of people. It is through this distorted lens that much of our perception of society is formed.
This raises two main issues. Firstly, what research can we do with current data, and what are the inherent problems that can constrain us in drawing conclusions? Secondly, can we improve the quality of data collected so as to avoid these problems?
The results are important for data-gathering and future research, as well as for the revisiting of past research to consider whether conclusions drawn are robust, or were due to weaknesses in the data.
Globalisation, gendered migration and labour markets
Paul Callister, Richard Bedford, and Robert Didham (2006), Department of Labour Future of Work discussion paper, February.
Download 'Globalisation, gendered migration and labour markets' [502 KB pdf]
Abstract: In New Zealand, in all age groups under 20, and in key working age groups, historically there have been more men than women. However, census data indicate that the number of New Zealand women residents relative to men in the broad 20-49 age group has been increasing since the 1980s.
Given that birth ratios for New Zealand residents favour boys in common with international experience, the imbalance of women over men in the 20-49 age group has to come from four possible sources: 1) differential mortality, 2) more New Zealand born men leaving New Zealand, 3) a higher number of female immigrants, or 4) that statistical collections are undercounting men, and this undercounting has become progressively greater over the past 20 years.
The study indicated that differences in mortality between males and females at ages between 20 and 49 years makes a small contribution to the numerical imbalance between the sexes, that over recent decades migration both in and out of New Zealand plays an important but quite complex role, and that undercount may be more important than previously considered. This exploratory study cannot determine the relative weight of each factor. To achieve this would require more detailed modelling work.
In theory, a shortage of males in key couple forming age groups may lead to more women not having a (male) partner and relatively fewer unpartnered men, which may reduce fertility, and may lead to an increase in female employment. New Zealand data show that over the long term more women are either living on their own or are sole parents, female employment has increased and fertility has declined. However, this trend is evident in all countries, regardless of the prevailing sex ratios.
While unlikely to be a key driver of behaviour, the recent changes in sex ratios, in absolute terms but more importantly educationally, are likely to support some continued growth in female employment and women living on their own. They are also likely to make it more difficult to support fertility rates at, or above, replacement rates. In addition, given the greater propensity for women to marry 'down' educationally, women's increased bargaining power within couple households over issues such as childcare may mean that negotiating work-life arrangements with their employers becomes more important for men in the future.
A background paper entitled 'The potential effect of changes in sex ratios on the 'marriage market', fertility and employment: A review of theory and evidence' is also available:
Download 'effect of changes in sex ratios on the marriage market' [67 KB pdf]
Paid parental leave in New Zealand: A short history and future policy options
Callister, P. and Galtry, J. (2006), IPS Policy Quarterly, 2(1): 38-46.
Download 'Paid parental leave in New Zealand' [88 KB pdf]
Abstract:This article draws on a number of research papers written by the authors since the early 1990s. First, it briefly considers historical New Zealand policy debates about parental leave. This discussion identifies themes that continually recur in the debates. Consideration is then given to how paid parental leave policy might develop in the future. This includes a brief discussion as to why there is justification for taxpayers' support of paid parental leave.
Latest Papers | 2009 | 2008 | 2007 | 2006 | 2005 | 2004 | 2003 | 2002 | Earlier Papers
